International Studies Assignment代寫：Social, Economic and Demographic Analysis of Detroit

International Studies Assignment代寫-底特律的社會(huì)、經(jīng)濟(jì)和人口分析。本文是一篇美國留學(xué)生國際研究專業(yè)Assignment范文，主要內(nèi)容是講述在1900年代之前，底特律是一個(gè)相當(dāng)著名的商業(yè)和交通城市，因?yàn)樗挥谖宕蠛^(qū)的中心，并可通往多條鐵路線。到了世紀(jì)之交，汽車工業(yè)蓬勃發(fā)展，克萊斯勒、福特和通用汽車（通常被稱為三大汽車公司）等公司遷入該市。使用艾伯特·卡恩的新建筑技術(shù)，工廠的建造效率和空間效率更高。這種新的發(fā)展導(dǎo)致了對(duì)這些工廠員工的高需求。當(dāng)時(shí)底特律的低技能制造業(yè)工作極具吸引力。福特公司于1914年宣布其日工資為5美元，比當(dāng)時(shí)許多其他低技能工作的工資要高得多，底特律的其他公司也提高了工資，以保持與福特公司的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力。人們移居到美國各地，甚至從國外獲得這些新發(fā)現(xiàn)的機(jī)會(huì)。這個(gè)城市的人口不斷增長(zhǎng)，黑人和少數(shù)民族人口也在增長(zhǎng)。第一次世界大戰(zhàn)爆發(fā)，作為美國制造業(yè)巨頭，底特律的工廠進(jìn)行了改裝，以生產(chǎn)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)物資。大蕭條并沒有像其他城市那樣嚴(yán)重地打擊底特律，第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間，底特律的工廠再次被改裝，以生產(chǎn)戰(zhàn)時(shí)物資和車輛。這使這座城市獲得了“西部阿森納”的稱號(hào)。1943年，由于黑人和白人社區(qū)之間日益緊張的種族關(guān)系，暴亂爆發(fā)，三天后，聯(lián)邦軍隊(duì)終于結(jié)束了暴亂。下面就一起看一下這篇美國留學(xué)生International Studies Assignment寫作范文。

Prior to the 1900s, Detroit was a fairly prominent commercial and transport city, due to its location in the center of the Great Lakes region and its access to multiple rail lines. By the turn of the century, the automotive industry boomed and companies such as Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors (commonly referred to as the Big Three) moved into the city. Using Albert Kahn’s new architectural techniques, factories were built to be more efficient and space effective. Such new developments led to a high demand for workers to staff these factories. Low-skill manufacturing jobs in Detroit were extremely attractive at the time. Ford announced its $5 a day wage in 1914, a significantly higher wage than many other low skill jobs of the time, and other companies in Detroit boosted their pay to remain competitive with Ford (Anderson, 2014). People moved to access these newfound opportunities from all over the US and even from outside the country. The population of the city grew and grew, along with the black and ethnic population. World War 1 took off and as America’s manufacturing giant, Detroit factories were refitted to make war materiel. The Great Depression did not hit Detroit as severely as other cities (need some sources on that, honestly just a guess), and again in World War 2, Detroit factories were refitted once again to produce wartime supplies and vehicles. This earned the city the name “Arsenal of the West”. In 1943, due to rising racial tensions betweens the black and white communities, a riot broke out, and was finally ended after three days by federal troops.
Post War Detroit 戰(zhàn)后底特律
After the war, returning soldiers and those wealthy enough started moving out of the city. The GI Bill allowed veterans to get low interest, no down payment mortgages for new homes and the highways augmented the current motor culture of the US. New highways were built after the Eisenhower administration passed the Federal Aid Highway Act in 1956. However, those built in Detroit cut through poorer ethnic neighborhoods, dividing those pre-existing communities and displacing those caught in its path with little forewarning. Not only did the well-off residents of the city start to move out, the automakers also relocated to the suburbs of Detroit in search of more space for their factories. Also, distributing the workforce over a larger area and increasing the number factories helped minimize the effect of union strikes. The big three built a combined 25 new factories outside city limits during this time (Sugrue 2004, par. 2). Inner city residents were unable to follow them, due to lack of capital and/or discrimination in housing. Blacks that tried to move into white suburban neighborhoods were met with hostility and the local Veterans Affairs office heavily favored whites for mortgages from the GI bill (Katznelson,). These further increased tensions in the black and white community. (Need to add more on 60s?) Tensions once again exploded in 1967, when the police raided a small, black owned, illegal bar. The violence escalated and after five days and millions of dollars in damage, the riot had been quelled after federal troops were called in. What had been a stream of people leaving the city has now become a flood. Those wealthy enough moved away in fear for their safety and with them, their tax dollars. This has been a growing problem since people started to leave Detroit. Without a solid tax base, basic social services and infrastructure were severely underfunded. This only exacerbated slow emergency service response times and even to the point where streetlamps couldn’t be turned on (source this). Gang activity and the illegal drug trade was rampant during this period, and these factors continued to cause more people to leave. (I don’t have enough info on Coleman Young). After NAFTA passed in 1994, many auto companies moved their primary manufacturing efforts to near the Mexico-US border, where labor costs there severely undercut wages in Detroit. (Need to get more info on modern >1994).
戰(zhàn)后，返回的士兵和那些足夠富有的人開始離開這座城市?！锻宋檐娙送宋檐娙朔ò浮吩试S退伍軍人獲得低息、無首付抵押貸款的新住房和高速公路，增強(qiáng)了美國當(dāng)前的汽車文化。1956年艾森豪威爾政府通過《聯(lián)邦援助公路法案》后，新公路開始修建。然而，底特律修建的公路穿過了較貧窮的民族社區(qū)，分裂那些先前存在的社區(qū)，并在幾乎沒有預(yù)警的情況下取代那些陷入困境的社區(qū)。不僅這座城市的富裕居民開始遷出，汽車制造商也遷往底特律郊區(qū)，為他們的工廠尋找更多的空間。此外，將勞動(dòng)力分布在更大的地區(qū)，增加工廠數(shù)量，有助于將工會(huì)罷工的影響降到最低。在這段時(shí)間里，三大公司在城外總共新建了25家工廠。由于缺乏資金和/或住房方面的歧視，市中心居民無法跟隨他們。試圖搬到郊區(qū)白人社區(qū)的黑人遭到了敵意，當(dāng)?shù)赝宋檐娙耸聞?wù)辦公室在GI法案中大力支持白人抵押貸款。這進(jìn)一步加劇了黑人和白人社區(qū)的緊張局勢(shì)。1967年，當(dāng)警察突襲一家黑人擁有的小型非法酒吧時(shí)，緊張局勢(shì)再次爆發(fā)。暴力事件升級(jí)，在五天和數(shù)百萬美元的損失后，聯(lián)邦軍隊(duì)被叫來后，騷亂被平息了。離開這座城市的人流現(xiàn)在變成了洪水。那些足夠富有的人因?yàn)閾?dān)心自己的安全而搬走了，他們的稅款也隨之而來。自從人們開始離開底特律以來，這一直是一個(gè)日益嚴(yán)重的問題。沒有堅(jiān)實(shí)的稅收基礎(chǔ)，基本社會(huì)服務(wù)和基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施嚴(yán)重缺乏資金。這只會(huì)加劇緊急服務(wù)響應(yīng)時(shí)間的緩慢，甚至導(dǎo)致路燈無法打開。在此期間，幫派活動(dòng)和非法毒品交易猖獗，這些因素繼續(xù)導(dǎo)致更多人離開。。1994年《北美自由貿(mào)易協(xié)定》通過后，許多汽車公司將其主要生產(chǎn)基地轉(zhuǎn)移到墨西哥-美國邊境附近，那里的勞動(dòng)力成本嚴(yán)重降低了底特律的工資。
Demographic structure 人口結(jié)構(gòu)
According to the 2016 Census population estimates, Detroit is the 23rd largest city in the US. In 2017, there are 673k people with median age of 34.6 in Detroit, MI (DATA USA, 2019). The population of Detroit is 79.12% black, 14.1% white, and 7.5% Latino or Hispanic (Detroit, 2019). Dividing the population by age range,  the largest age range group is from 20 to 29, which makes up 17% of the population. The second largest age range is from 0 to 9, which constitutes 14%. Only 6% are from age 60 – 79, and 3% above 80. Other age groups are evenly distributed (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019).
根據(jù)2016年人口普查的人口估計(jì)，底特律是美國第23大城市。2017年，密歇根州底特律有673000人，中位年齡為34.6歲。底特律人口為79.12%黑人，14.1%白人，7.5%拉丁裔或西班牙裔。按年齡段劃分人口，最大年齡段為20至29歲，占人口的17%。第二大年齡段為0至9歲，占14%。只有6%的人口年齡在60-79歲之間，80歲以上的人口占3%。其他年齡段的人口分布均勻。
Poverty background 貧困背景
In Detroit, four in ten people live in poverty.  The poverty thresholds are set quite low in Detroit, MI. A family of four is considered as living in poverty if their annual income is below $24,600 in 2017 (Marge Sorge, 2018). The poverty rate of Detroit is 37.9%, which means that the income of one person out of 2.6 falls under the poverty threshold. At that time, the poverty rate of Michigan is only 15.6%, which is 22.3% lower than the poverty rate of Detroit. As for income inequality, the Gini Index of Detroit was higher than Gini Index of all of Michigan from 2008 to 2016 (DATA USA, 2019).
在底特律，十分之四的人生活在貧困中。密歇根州底特律的貧困門檻設(shè)定得很低。如果一個(gè)四口之家2017年的年收入低于24600美元，則被視為生活貧困。底特律的貧困率為37.9%，這意味著2.6人中有一人的收入低于貧困線。當(dāng)時(shí)，密歇根州的貧困率僅為15.6%，比底特律的貧困率低22.3%。至于收入不平等，2008年至2016年，底特律的基尼指數(shù)高于密歇根州的基尼系數(shù)。
Age and Gender 年齡和性別
At 57.1%, Detroit has the highest child poverty rate in the country and has been increasing since 2000 (Drawing Detroit, 2017).  The poverty rate of children under 18 is above 50%, while the poverty rate of children under 6 is almost 60%, and given that 31.1% of the population is under the age of 18, child poverty is becoming a rising problem in Detroit and the future of the community is bleak. Gender inequality is also a problem in Detroit. There is a clear male bias within the population regardless of years of schooling. Glass ceilings are still noticeable for female workers as male citizens have about $2 higher median hourly wages across all levels of education.
底特律兒童貧困率為57.1%，是全國兒童貧困率最高的國家，自2000年以來一直在增長(zhǎng)。18歲以下兒童的貧困率在50%以上，而6歲以下兒童貧困率幾乎為60%，考慮到31.1%的人口年齡在18歲以下，兒童貧困正在成為底特律的一個(gè)日益嚴(yán)重的問題，社區(qū)的未來是暗淡的。性別不平等也是底特律的一個(gè)問題。無論受教育年限如何，人口中都存在明顯的男性偏見。對(duì)于女性工人來說，玻璃天花板仍然是顯而易見的，因?yàn)樵谒薪逃缴?，男性公民的每小時(shí)工資中位數(shù)都要高出約2美元。       
Race and Ethnicity 種族和民族
With the same level of educational qualification, people of different races are treated differently. For example, with a BA Degree or higher,  a black person earns $3.20 per hour less than a white person. The most common racial group living under the poverty threshold in Detroit, MI is Black, followed by White and Hispanic.
在同等學(xué)歷的情況下，不同種族的人會(huì)受到不同的待遇。例如，擁有學(xué)士學(xué)位或更高學(xué)歷的黑人每小時(shí)的收入比白人少3.20美元。密歇根州底特律最常見的生活在貧困線以下的種族群體是黑人，其次是白人和西班牙裔。
School Enrollment 學(xué)校入學(xué)人數(shù)
For those who have not enrolled in school in Detroit, MI, the poverty rate is 32.5%. For those who have enrolled in school, the poverty rate increased to 48.3%. There are typically 6 types of school in Detroit, MI. For those who only enrolled in Nursery School, their poverty rate is about 57.5%, which is the highest poverty rate group in people who enrolled in school. For those who finished their Elementary School, which is considered as grade 1 to 4, the poverty rate is 55.2%. For people enrolled in Middle School, which is from grade 5 to 8, the poverty rate is 51.7%. For people enrolled in High School, which is from grade 9 to 12, the poverty rate is 48.2%. For people enrolled in Undergraduate School, they have a poverty rate of 37.2%. For people enrolled in Graduate or Professional School, they have a poverty rate of 30.9%, which is the lowest poverty rate group in people who enrolled in school. According to these data, the poverty rate is decreasing when people enrolled a more professional and higher level school.
對(duì)于那些沒有在密歇根州底特律上學(xué)的人來說，貧困率為32.5%。對(duì)于那些入學(xué)的人來說，貧困率上升到48.3%。密歇根州底特律通常有6種類型的學(xué)校。對(duì)于那些只在幼兒園就讀的人來說，他們的貧困率約為57.5%，這是入學(xué)人數(shù)中貧困率最高的群體。對(duì)于那些完成小學(xué)一至四年級(jí)學(xué)業(yè)的人來說，貧困率為55.2%。在中學(xué)5年級(jí)至8年級(jí)的學(xué)生中，貧困率為51.7%。在9年級(jí)至12年級(jí)的高中生中，貧困率為48.2%。對(duì)于就讀本科的人來說，他們的貧困率為37.2%。對(duì)于在研究生院或?qū)I(yè)學(xué)校就讀的人來說，他們的貧困率為30.9%，這是在學(xué)校就讀的人群中貧困率最低的群體。根據(jù)這些數(shù)據(jù)，當(dāng)人們進(jìn)入更專業(yè)、更高水平的學(xué)校時(shí)，貧困率正在下降。       
A 2010 report on Detroit’s poverty situation further highlights the significant effect of education on poverty. 46.0% of families headed by someone with an educational level below highschool are in poverty. 35.2% of highschool graduate-headed families are in poverty. Families headed by people with BA degrees or higher only have a 10.2% poverty rate, suggesting that Detroiters who have experience in higher levels of education are less likely to be in poverty.
2010年關(guān)于底特律貧困狀況的報(bào)告進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)調(diào)了教育對(duì)貧困的重大影響。46.0%由教育水平低于高中的人領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的家庭處于貧困之中。35.2%的高中畢業(yè)生家庭生活貧困。擁有學(xué)士學(xué)位或以上學(xué)歷的家庭的貧困率僅為10.2%，這表明受過高等教育的底特律人不太可能陷入貧困。
Economic Lives 經(jīng)濟(jì)生活
Health care, child care, and housing take up a majority of poor Detroiters’ costs. However, some still cannot even afford to meet their living needs. According to the 139 Square Miles report by Detroit Future City, 24% of adults in Detroit do not have access to health care because of costs. This is mainly due to an increase in health care costs and housing prices. The standard for affordable rent in the US is considered to be no more than 30% of family’s income. In Detroit, 50.2% of all households spend more than 30% of their income on rent, meaning that more than half of Detroit are actually cost-burdened by housing. Detroit’s median household income is $27,838 per year, which is half the median household income of the state of Michigan. A majority of the income that the working poor makes is from low-wage service jobs. Moreover, many of the working poor make so little money from their jobs that they have to take up a second job in order to pay for basic living necessities like food, transportation and technology. Thus, there are a few issues such as affordable housing and welfare that Detroit needs to address in order to solve their poverty issue.
醫(yī)療、兒童保育和住房占據(jù)了底特律窮人的大部分成本。然而，有些人甚至無法滿足他們的生活需要。根據(jù)底特律未來城市的139平方英里報(bào)告，24%的底特律成年人由于費(fèi)用原因無法獲得醫(yī)療保健。這主要是由于醫(yī)療費(fèi)用和住房?jī)r(jià)格上漲。美國的可負(fù)擔(dān)租金標(biāo)準(zhǔn)被認(rèn)為不超過家庭收入的30%。在底特律，50.2%的家庭將收入的30%以上用于房租，這意味著底特律有一半以上的家庭實(shí)際上承受著住房成本負(fù)擔(dān)。底特律的家庭收入中值為每年27838美元，是密歇根州家庭收入中值的一半。在職窮人的大部分收入來自低薪服務(wù)工作。此外，許多有工作的窮人從工作中掙的錢太少，以至于他們不得不從事第二份工作，以支付食物、交通和技術(shù)等基本生活必需品。因此，底特律需要解決一些問題，如負(fù)擔(dān)得起的住房和福利，以解決他們的貧困問題。
Causes of Poverty 貧困的原因
Last century, Detroit was well-known as the Motor City in the world. The Big Three automobile manufacturers – Ford, General Motors and Chrysler Corp. – all headquartered in Detroit. They created hundreds of thousands of manufacturing jobs. At that time, no one would imagine that one day, Detroit would go bankrupt. However, today, General Motors is the only one automaker that still headquartered in Detroit. During the Great Recession, it even needed to get a provisional bailout from the government in order to pull through tough times. What’s more, it finally had to declare bankruptcy in 2009 and got financing support from Obama’s government.
上個(gè)世紀(jì)，底特律被譽(yù)為世界汽車城。三大汽車制造商——福特、通用汽車和克萊斯勒公司——都總部設(shè)在底特律。他們創(chuàng)造了數(shù)十萬個(gè)制造業(yè)工作崗位。那時(shí)，沒有人會(huì)想到有一天，底特律會(huì)破產(chǎn)。然而，今天，通用汽車是唯一一家總部仍設(shè)在底特律的汽車制造商。在大蕭條期間，它甚至需要從政府獲得臨時(shí)救助，以度過艱難時(shí)期。更重要的是，它最終不得不在2009年宣布破產(chǎn)，并獲得了奧巴馬政府的融資支持。
Historically speaking, the riots and the gasoline crisis are the causes of Detroit’s failure. For instance, the Twelfth Street riots in 1967 was marked as one of the most serious riots in the US history. In the riot, black residents stood against the police. It caused more than forty people to be killed and hundreds of people to get injured while thousands of people were arrested. The riots like this left Detroit in chaos, which led some people especially the upper and middle class to leave the city. As a result, the city suffered from losing some active workers and attracting investments from the rich. The gasoline crisis during 1973 and 1974 made the situation worse. Before the crisis, Americans preferred heavier and more powerful cars, which burned more fuel, because the price of oil was well controlled and thereby affordable for many of them. By 1974, the gasoline price quadrupled. This affected all the Big Three automobile manufacturers in Detroit. The demand for large cars decreased since large cars were not as popular as before. Instead, smaller and more fuel-efficient cars came to people’s minds. For example, Japanese automakers successfully found a place of the automobile market in the US during that period. For a long period, Ford, General Motors and Chrysler Corp. all struggled and found it hard to compete with foreign automobile manufacturers.
從歷史上講，騷亂和汽油危機(jī)是底特律失敗的原因。例如，1967年的第十二街騷亂被認(rèn)為是美國歷史上最嚴(yán)重的騷亂之一。在暴亂中，黑人居民反抗警察。它造成40多人死亡，數(shù)百人受傷，數(shù)千人被捕。像這樣的騷亂讓底特律陷入混亂，導(dǎo)致一些人，特別是中上層階級(jí)離開了這座城市。結(jié)果，該市失去了一些活躍的工人，吸引了富人的投資。1973年和1974年的汽油危機(jī)使情況更糟。在危機(jī)之前，美國人更喜歡更重、更強(qiáng)勁的汽車，因?yàn)樗鼈內(nèi)紵嗟娜剂?，因?yàn)橛蛢r(jià)受到了很好的控制，因此許多人都能負(fù)擔(dān)得起。到1974年，汽油價(jià)格翻了兩番。這影響了底特律所有三大汽車制造商。由于大型汽車不像以前那樣受歡迎，對(duì)大型汽車的需求減少了。相反，人們想到的是更小、更省油的汽車。例如，在此期間，日本汽車制造商成功地在美國汽車市場(chǎng)找到了一席之地。長(zhǎng)期以來，福特、通用汽車和克萊斯勒公司都在苦苦掙扎，發(fā)現(xiàn)很難與外國汽車制造商競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。
As shown in Exhibit #, currently, Detroit has more retired workers than active workers. This is also one of the causes of Detroit’s poverty conditions. With less active employees, the city government cannot make enough revenues through tax collection. And since there are more retirees within the city, the government has to spend a lot of money on its pension funds as well as health care programs. One bad news was that the government not only could not have a budget surplus, but also needed to experience an increase in its debt and liability because it was supposed to lend money from other institutions in order to cover the funds which could help out the poor and the retirees. It made the situation worse and worse and it seemed like there was a financial hole that the government was unable to plug in the future as the government could not cut the budget deficit and the budget deficit was still out of control. According to Brad Plumer in “Detroit’s pension problems, in one chart”, Detroit government used to “[default] on pension obligations”, which was likely to “[blow] a hole in the 30-year projections and long-term solvency” (Plumer 2013). Unfortunately, the government of Detroit went bankrupt on July 18, 2013, which worsens the situation again.
目前底特律的退休工人比在職工人多。這也是底特律貧困狀況的原因之一。由于雇員不太活躍，市政府無法通過稅收獲得足夠的收入。由于該市有更多的退休人員，政府不得不在養(yǎng)老基金和醫(yī)療保健項(xiàng)目上投入大量資金。一個(gè)壞消息是，政府不僅不能有預(yù)算盈余，而且還需要經(jīng)歷債務(wù)和負(fù)債的增加，因?yàn)樗鼞?yīng)該從其他機(jī)構(gòu)借錢，以支付可以幫助窮人和退休人員的資金。這使情況變得越來越糟，似乎有一個(gè)財(cái)政漏洞，政府無法填補(bǔ)，因?yàn)檎疅o法削減預(yù)算赤字，而且預(yù)算赤字仍然無法控制。布拉德·普盧默（Brad Plumer）在《底特律的養(yǎng)老金問題》（Detroit’s pension problems）中表示，底特律政府過去“拖欠養(yǎng)老金債務(wù)”，這很可能“在30年的預(yù)測(cè)和長(zhǎng)期償債能力上打個(gè)洞”。不幸的是，底特律政府于2013年7月18日破產(chǎn)，這再次惡化了局勢(shì)。
High unemployment rate and high crime rate are also the problems Detroit faces. The unemployment rate in Detroit is much higher than the country and state average (Graham 2018). Although high crime rate is a result of poverty, it is one cause of poverty. Because poor people need money to survive, sometimes they opt to commit a crime, which makes the upper and middle class feel that their safety needs are threatened and finally leave the city. Since they leave Detroit, the companies in the city find it hard to hire skilled workers. As a result, many firms and factories choose to leave the city and set up in its suburbs. Job opportunities that are available to the residents decrease and some lose their jobs. Not surprisingly, the unemployment rate rises. As more and more people become jobless, more and more citizens live below the poverty line.
高失業(yè)率和高犯罪率也是底特律面臨的問題。底特律的失業(yè)率遠(yuǎn)高于全國和州平均水平。雖然高犯罪率是貧困的結(jié)果，但它是貧困的原因之一。因?yàn)楦F人需要錢來生存，有時(shí)他們會(huì)選擇犯罪，這使得上中產(chǎn)階級(jí)感到他們的安全需求受到威脅，最終離開了城市。由于他們離開底特律，該市的公司發(fā)現(xiàn)很難雇傭熟練工人。因此，許多公司和工廠選擇離開城市，在郊區(qū)設(shè)立。居民可獲得的就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)減少，一些人失去了工作。毫不奇怪，失業(yè)率在上升。隨著越來越多的人失業(yè)，越來越多的公民生活在貧困線以下。
Welfare 福利
One of the best ways a region can do to fight poverty is by implementing a solid welfare system. Welfare programs provide low-income families with subsidies. These transfers could either be in the form of cash for financial aid or as In-Kind transfers like free healthcare, and subsidized housing.
一個(gè)地區(qū)消除貧困的最佳方式之一是實(shí)施一個(gè)堅(jiān)實(shí)的福利制度。福利計(jì)劃為低收入家庭提供補(bǔ)貼。這些轉(zhuǎn)移可以是現(xiàn)金形式的財(cái)政援助，也可以是實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移，如免費(fèi)醫(yī)療和補(bǔ)貼住房。       
In the US, many effective welfare programs such as the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) have already been implemented as a response to their poverty issue. The EITC is a tax credit system that incentivizes the poor to join the labor force by providing low-income families with cash transfers that are calculated based on income and household size. The EITC is known to be extremely effective at increasing labor force participation, decreasing poverty rates, and decreasing welfare caseloads. However, ever since the change in program management from the federal level to the state level during the welfare reform in the 1990s, the policy has been enforced in different ways, and so the extent of the EITC program differs with each state.
在美國，許多有效的福利計(jì)劃，如收入所得稅抵免（EITC），已經(jīng)實(shí)施，以應(yīng)對(duì)貧困問題。EITC是一種稅收抵免制度，通過向低收入家庭提供基于收入和家庭規(guī)模計(jì)算的現(xiàn)金轉(zhuǎn)移，鼓勵(lì)窮人加入勞動(dòng)力隊(duì)伍。眾所周知，EITC在提高勞動(dòng)力參與度、降低貧困率和減少福利工作量方面非常有效。然而，自20世紀(jì)90年代福利改革期間，計(jì)劃管理從聯(lián)邦一級(jí)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橹菀患?jí)以來，該政策以不同的方式實(shí)施，因此EITC計(jì)劃的范圍因各州而異。
The EITC program works on both a federal and a state or local government level. The federal EITC provides low-income working families with the cash transfers. To supplement the federal EITCs, each state then provides their low-income families with their own state EITC, which is usually set as a percentage of the federal credit. For example, low-wage families in the state of Massachusetts receive an additional 23% of their federal credit as state credit. There are also cases where cities choose to follow their own EITC rate instead of their state rate. Low-income families in New York City receive only an additional 5% of their federal credit whereas others in the State of New York receive 30% additional credit. The city of Detroit however, chooses to use Michigan’s state EITC, which is only 6% of federal credit. Given the high poverty levels of Detroit and Michigan cities, the Michigan EITC is too low for the area and needs to be optimized. To reduce the poverty rates, Michigan governors are proposing to double the Michigan EITC to 12% of the federal credit. This would provide low-wage Detroiters with additional 130 USD in transfers that could help pay for their ever-increasing living expenses and lift them out of poverty. Moreover, a higher state EITC credit cap would attract the poor and motivate them to work because of the policy’s work requirement, increasing labor force participation.
EITC計(jì)劃在聯(lián)邦和州或地方政府層面都有效。聯(lián)邦EITC向低收入工作家庭提供現(xiàn)金轉(zhuǎn)移。為了補(bǔ)充聯(lián)邦EITC，每個(gè)州都會(huì)向低收入家庭提供自己的州EITC，該州EITC通常設(shè)定為聯(lián)邦信貸的百分比。例如，馬薩諸塞州的低工資家庭額外獲得23%的聯(lián)邦信貸作為州信貸。也有一些城市選擇采用自己的EITC費(fèi)率，而不是州費(fèi)率。紐約市的低收入家庭只獲得聯(lián)邦信貸的5%，而紐約州的其他家庭則獲得30%的額外信貸。然而，底特律市選擇使用密歇根州的EITC，這只占聯(lián)邦信貸的6%。鑒于底特律和密歇根州城市的高貧困水平，該地區(qū)的密歇根EITC太低，需要優(yōu)化。為了降低貧困率，密歇根州州長(zhǎng)提議將密歇根EITC提高一倍，達(dá)到聯(lián)邦信貸的12%。這將為低工資底特律人提供額外130美元的轉(zhuǎn)移支付，幫助他們支付不斷增加的生活費(fèi)用，并幫助他們擺脫貧困。此外，更高的州EITC信貸上限將吸引窮人并激勵(lì)他們工作，因?yàn)檎叩墓ぷ饕?，增加勞?dòng)力參與。
Health care 醫(yī)療保健
 One of the biggest impacts that President Obama made on Detroit was the 2010 enactment of the Affordable Care Act (ACA), a reformed federal health care system that aimed to increase health care accessibility and availability for adults across the nation. This policy allowed states to expand the coverage of their Medicaid programs by creating new health care programs. Michigan’s Medicaid expansion, also known as the Healthy Michigan Plan (HMP), was authorized under the ACA in 2013. The Healthy Michigan Plan is different to traditional Medicaid programs in terms of eligibility rules. Traditional Medicaid was only applicable to elderly/disabled below 100% of federal poverty line (FPL), children below 160% of FPL, and pregnant women below 195% of FPL. HMP on the other hand, specifically targets the working population. Adults (ages 19-64) who earn less than 133% of the FPL are eligible to apply for health care coverage of services such as free drug prescription, emergency services, and mental health services. This is extremely beneficial to low-income households because it enables them to spend their earnings on other important bills like electricity and rent, reducing financial pressures. It’s possible that the eligibility change to 133% of the FPL could also help smoothen the poor’s transition out of poverty. By covering the high costed health insurance of the city for the adults once they’re above the poverty line, it could protect them against shocks from losing other government subsidy privileges.
奧巴馬總統(tǒng)對(duì)底特律產(chǎn)生的最大影響之一是2010年頒布的《平價(jià)醫(yī)療法案》（ACA），這是一個(gè)經(jīng)過改革的聯(lián)邦醫(yī)療體系，旨在提高全國成年人的醫(yī)療服務(wù)可及性和可用性。這項(xiàng)政策允許各州通過創(chuàng)建新的醫(yī)療保健計(jì)劃來擴(kuò)大醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計(jì)劃的覆蓋范圍。密歇根州的醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助擴(kuò)展，也稱為健康密歇根計(jì)劃（HMP），于2013年根據(jù)ACA獲得授權(quán)。健康密歇計(jì)劃在資格規(guī)則方面與傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計(jì)劃不同。傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助僅適用于聯(lián)邦貧困線（FPL）100%以下的老年人/殘疾人、FPL 160%以下的兒童和FPL 195%以下的孕婦。另一方面，HMP專門針對(duì)工作人口。收入低于FPL 133%的成年人（19-64歲）有資格申請(qǐng)免費(fèi)藥物處方、緊急服務(wù)和心理健康服務(wù)等服務(wù)的醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)。這對(duì)低收入家庭極為有利，因?yàn)檫@使他們能夠?qū)⑹杖胗糜谄渌匾馁~單，如電費(fèi)和租金，從而減輕了經(jīng)濟(jì)壓力。有可能，將資格變更為FPL的133%也有助于幫助窮人順利擺脫貧困。通過為超過貧困線的成年人提供高成本的醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)，可以保護(hù)他們免受沖擊，避免失去其他政府補(bǔ)貼特權(quán)。
Since the health care reform, the health of Detroit’s low-income population was greatly improved. 3 years into the health care expansion, Detroit’s uninsured rate saw a huge reduction from 22% down to 7%. Moreover, a 2018 mixed methods study on the HMP conducted by the University of Michigan highlighted its impact. Of the 4108 survey responses, 80.2% were below 100% of the FPL, suggesting that a majority of the people who are under the HMP program are in poverty. The study also concluded that, since enrollment, 47.8% of HMP enrollees saw improvements in their physical health, 38.2% of users had improved mental health, 69.4% believed they experienced increases in work productivity, and 54.5% reported that the program was able to make them more fit to look for jobs. Thus, not only did Michigan’s Medicaid expansion improve the health of the poor, but it also improved their ability to work, and increased their job opportunities. However, this study heavily relied on the respondents’ ability to recall their experience, which could be subjective and inaccurate. Still, this is a big step forward for the city of Detroit in terms of solving their poverty issue.
自醫(yī)療改革以來，底特律低收入人口的健康狀況大大改善。醫(yī)療保健擴(kuò)張3年后，底特律的未保險(xiǎn)率從22%大幅下降至7%。此外，密歇根大學(xué)（University of Michigan）2018年對(duì)HMP進(jìn)行的一項(xiàng)混合方法研究強(qiáng)調(diào)了其影響。在4108份調(diào)查答復(fù)中，80.2%的人低于100%的FPL，這表明HMP計(jì)劃下的大多數(shù)人都處于貧困之中。該研究還得出結(jié)論，自注冊(cè)以來，47.8%的HMP參與者的身體健康狀況有所改善，38.2%的用戶的心理健康狀況有所提高，69.4%的人認(rèn)為他們的工作效率有所提高，54.5%的人表示該計(jì)劃能夠讓他們更適合找工作。因此，密歇根州醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計(jì)劃的擴(kuò)大不僅改善了窮人的健康，還提高了他們的工作能力，增加了他們的就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)。然而，這項(xiàng)研究在很大程度上依賴于受訪者回憶自己經(jīng)歷的能力，這可能是主觀和不準(zhǔn)確的。盡管如此，這對(duì)底特律市解決貧困問題來說是向前邁出的一大步。
Necessities 必要性
The United States Environmental Protection Agency considers an affordable bill to be 4.5% of monthly household income for water and wastewater service. While there is an ongoing debate about whether percentage-of-income is the most accurate determination of affordability, it remains the federal standard and most commonly used metric. The issue of water affordability has been an area of concern and contention in the City of Detroit for over a decade. Low-income residents pay on-average 10% of their monthly household income for water services, more than double the estimated rate. Residents are also making trade-offs to pay those bills. (Rockowitz 2018)
美國環(huán)境保護(hù)局認(rèn)為，一筆負(fù)擔(dān)得起的賬單是家庭每月收入的4.5%，用于供水和廢水處理。雖然目前仍在爭(zhēng)論收入百分比是否是最準(zhǔn)確的負(fù)擔(dān)能力決定因素，但它仍然是聯(lián)邦標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和最常用的指標(biāo)。十多年來，底特律市一直關(guān)注和爭(zhēng)論水的可承受性問題。低收入居民平均每月支付家庭收入的10%用于供水服務(wù)，是估計(jì)費(fèi)用的兩倍多。居民們也在權(quán)衡如何支付這些賬單。
Assistance is helping reduce costs, but is not closing the affordability gap. Almost 80% of households on assistance pay over 4.5% of their income for water services. 94.3% were still cutting-back on monthly expenses to keep-up with their bills. 25.6% of households not receiving assistance were unaware of assistance programs.
援助有助于降低成本，但沒有縮小負(fù)擔(dān)能力差距。近80%接受援助的家庭將其收入的4.5%以上用于供水服務(wù)。94.3%的人仍在削減每月開支以應(yīng)付賬單。25.6%的未接受援助的家庭不知道援助計(jì)劃。
It is suggested that the state government can extend to water suppliers the same rules that prohibit electric and natural gas providers from shutting off service to households with low incomes, older adults and people with serious medical conditions. Additionally, water suppliers should consider income-based rates for customers facing burdensome bills. In 2017, Philadelphia adopted a water rate structure, setting bills at 2% to 4% of income for customers at or below 150% of the federal poverty level or who experience certain financial hardships. This helps families to stay on their current water bills, increases certainty in the water supplier’s revenue stream, and reduces the supplier’s expenses related to collections and bad debt.
有人建議，州政府可以將禁止電力和天然氣供應(yīng)商關(guān)閉對(duì)低收入家庭、老年人和嚴(yán)重疾病患者的服務(wù)的同樣規(guī)則擴(kuò)展到供水供應(yīng)商。此外，供水商應(yīng)考慮為面臨沉重賬單的客戶提供基于收入的費(fèi)率。2017年，費(fèi)城采用了水費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)，將聯(lián)邦貧困水平150%或以下的客戶或經(jīng)歷某些財(cái)務(wù)困難的客戶的賬單定為收入的2%至4%。這有助于家庭維持目前的水費(fèi)，增加供水商收入流的確定性，并減少供水商與收款和壞賬相關(guān)的費(fèi)用。
Housing 住房
Michigan state law requires local governments to make a Poverty Tax Exemption (PTE) available to owner-occupants with low-incomes. In Detroit, the PTE is implemented as the Homeowners Property Tax Assistance Program (HPTAP). Homeowners living near or below the Federal Poverty Level (FPL) may apply annually to this program to have their property tax bill reduced by half or eliminated. Despite the availability of the PTE in Detroit, only a small proportion of eligible homeowners gain access to this critical relief. (Eisenberg 2018)
Findings reveal that low awareness, burdensome application procedures and limited institutional accountability act as barriers that restrict access to the program. Many residents who were eligible but did not receive the PTE in past years face considerable tax debt and remain at high risk for foreclosure. Most residents are confused about the relationship between city and county tax obligations; and the difference between available relief options. Homeowners faced considerable barriers at each stage of the application process that prevented them from receiving the exemption.
密歇根州法律要求地方政府向低收入的業(yè)主和住戶提供貧困免稅（PTE）。在底特律，PTE作為業(yè)主財(cái)產(chǎn)稅援助計(jì)劃（HPTAP）實(shí)施。居住在聯(lián)邦貧困線（FPL）附近或以下的房主可以每年申請(qǐng)?jiān)撚?jì)劃，將其財(cái)產(chǎn)稅賬單減半或取消。盡管底特律有PTE，但只有一小部分符合條件的房主能夠獲得這一關(guān)鍵救濟(jì)。             
調(diào)查結(jié)果表明，低認(rèn)識(shí)、繁瑣的申請(qǐng)程序和有限的機(jī)構(gòu)責(zé)任是限制進(jìn)入該項(xiàng)目的障礙。許多有資格但在過去幾年沒有獲得PTE的居民面臨著相當(dāng)大的稅收債務(wù)，并且仍然面臨著喪失抵押品贖回權(quán)的高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。大多數(shù)居民對(duì)城市和縣稅收義務(wù)之間的關(guān)系感到困惑；以及現(xiàn)有救濟(jì)方案之間的差異。房主在申請(qǐng)過程的每個(gè)階段都面臨著相當(dāng)大的障礙，使他們無法獲得豁免。       
On the other hand, Detroit’s inclusionary zoning ordinance aims to offer more housing for families making up to 80% of AMI, but incomes in the city are generally much lower than incomes in the larger metro area and the most severe shortage of affordable housing is among renter households with Extremely Low Incomes (ELI)—those living at 30% of Area Median Income (AMI) and below. To focus on these families, the ordinance also created the Affordable Housing Development and Preservation Fund, which receives 20% of the net receipts of city-owned commercial property sales as well as the penalties assessed for failure to comply with the ordinance. The money can be used to meet the housing needs of families with incomes of up to 50% of AMI, with the majority dedicated to ELI families. (Cassidy 2019)
In 2018, Mayor Mike Duggan announced an initiative to establish a second housing fund, the Affordable Housing Leverage Fund (AHLF). Planned investments to the AHLF from several sources total $250 million over five years, eclipsing the city’s commitment to the ordinance-created fund. However, the fund is directed at development priced for households up to 80% of AMI, with a focus on those up to 60% of AMI. The city should make a more robust commitment of dedicated annual revenue to the first fund, which includes creation of an Affordable Housing Task Force, in order to achieve its deeper affordability goals for the Detroit families facing the greatest housing challenges.
另一方面，底特律的包容性分區(qū)條例旨在為占AMI人口80%的家庭提供更多的住房，但城市的收入通常遠(yuǎn)低于大城市地區(qū)的收入，而最嚴(yán)重的經(jīng)濟(jì)適用住房短缺是收入極低（ELI）的租戶家庭，即生活在地區(qū)中等收入（AMI）30%及以下的租戶。為了關(guān)注這些家庭，該法令還設(shè)立了經(jīng)濟(jì)適用房開發(fā)和保護(hù)基金，該基金將收取城市所有商業(yè)地產(chǎn)銷售凈收入的20%，以及因未遵守該法令而受到的處罰。這筆錢可用于滿足收入高達(dá)AMI 50%的家庭的住房需求，其中大部分用于ELI家庭。            
2018年，市長(zhǎng)邁克·達(dá)根宣布設(shè)立第二個(gè)住房基金——平價(jià)住房杠桿基金（AHLF）。五年內(nèi)，來自多個(gè)來源的對(duì)AHLF的計(jì)劃投資總額為2.5億美元，超過了該市對(duì)該法令創(chuàng)建的基金的承諾。然而，該基金的目標(biāo)是為高達(dá)80%的AMI家庭定價(jià)的開發(fā)項(xiàng)目，重點(diǎn)是高達(dá)60%的AMI。為了實(shí)現(xiàn)底特律面臨最大住房挑戰(zhàn)的家庭更深層次的負(fù)擔(dān)能力目標(biāo)，底特律市應(yīng)該對(duì)第一個(gè)基金做出更有力的年度收入承諾，其中包括成立一個(gè)負(fù)擔(dān)得起的住房工作隊(duì)。
Policies Proposal 政策建議
Considering the causes of poverty in Detroit, the government should try to attract investment and thereby create more jobs and attract more workers. It is supposed to improve education and training of employees so that the city can compete with its suburbs instead of losing its upper and middle class in the competition with them. Meanwhile, with more active workers, the government can also increase tax revenue and achieve a budget surplus.
Assignment范文作者考慮到底特律貧困的原因，提出政府應(yīng)該努力吸引投資，從而創(chuàng)造更多的就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)，吸引更多的工人。它應(yīng)該改善員工的教育和培訓(xùn)，使城市能夠與郊區(qū)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，而不是在與郊區(qū)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)中失去上層和中產(chǎn)階級(jí)。同時(shí)，有了更多積極的工人，政府也可以增加稅收，實(shí)現(xiàn)預(yù)算盈余。本站提供各國各專業(yè)Assignment代寫或指導(dǎo)服務(wù)，如有需要可咨詢本平臺(tái)。